Effect of pulp layer thickness and drying temperature on the drying kinetics and physicochemical quality of tree tomato (Solanum betaceum) powder
Document Type : Original research
Authors
1 Department of Food Science, Nutrition and Technology, University of Nairobi, Kenya
2 Department of Environmental and Biosystems Engineering, University of Nairobi, Kenya
10.22059/jfabe.2025.397640.1204
Abstract
Tree tomato fruits are seasonal and highly nutritious; however, a significant portion of the produce is for immediate
consumption owing to their perishability and inadequate preservation methods. To our knowledge, there are no
studies that have been conducted on the drying kinetics of tree tomato pulp. Four different pulp layer thicknesses
(2, 4, 6, and 8 mm) were dried using a convective oven at air velocities of 15 m/s, set at temperatures of 40, 50, and
60 °C, and then ground into powder. The quality of the powder, drying curves, and the best-fit drying kinetic model
to predict the drying behavior were determined. Drying curves across the different temperatures demonstrated that
higher temperatures accelerated the drying process for all thicknesses. At 60 °C, materials across all thicknesses
showed a rapid reduction in moisture ratio (MR), indicating a faster moisture removal rate. Thicker samples had
notably higher MRs across all time points than thinner samples, signifying slower drying rates. The inverse
relationship between thickness and drying rate was attributed to increased resistance to moisture diffusion in thicker
layers, which slowed the internal water movement to the surface of the materials, decreasing the overall drying rate.
Water activity for the dried samples was below 0.6, indicating the product was microbiologically and chemically
stable. There was a significant difference for vitamin C, total phenols, and hygroscopicity across the drying
temperatures (p < 0.05). Samples dried at a temperature of 60 °C recorded higher total phenols, while the
hygroscopicity decreased with an increase in temperature. Lower values of vitamin C were recorded at lower drying
temperatures.
Keywords
Main Subjects
References
Akther, S., Sultana, J., Badsha, R., Rahman, M., Buddha, G., & Alim, A.
(2023). Drying methods effect on bioactive compounds, phenolic
profile, and antioxidant capacity of mango powder. Journal of
King Saud University - Science, 35(1), 102370.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2022.102370
AOAC. (2010). Official Methods of Analysis: 18th Edition,2005. In TrAC
Trends in Analytical Chemistry (Vol. 9, Issue 4).
https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-9936(90)87098-7
Aravindakshan, S., Nguyen, T. H. A., Kyomugasho, C., Buvé, C.,
Dewettinck, K., Van Loey, A., & Hendrickx, M. E. (2021). The
impact of drying and rehydration on the structural properties and
quality attributes of pre-cooked dried beans. Foods, 10(7).
https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10071665
Azeez, L., Adebisi, S. A., Oyedeji, A. O., Adetoro, R. O., & Tijani, K. O.
(2019). Bioactive compounds’ contents, drying kinetics and
mathematical modelling of tomato slices influenced by drying
temperatures and time. In Journal of the Saudi Society of
Agricultural Sciences (Vol. 18, Issue 2, pp. 120–126). King Saud
University & Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2017.03.002
Bhagya Raj, G. V. S., & Dash, K. K. (2022). Comprehensive study on
applications of artificial neural network in food process modeling.
In Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition (Vol. 62, Issue
10, pp. 2756–2783). Taylor and Francis Ltd.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2020.1858398
Bhattacharjee, S., Mohanty, P., Sahu, J. K., & Sahu, J. N. (2024). A critical
review on drying of food materials: Recent progress and key
challenges. International Communications in Heat and Mass
Transfer, 158, 107863.
Maitha et al. JFBE 8(1): 33-44,2025
43
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ICHEATMASSTRANSFER.2024.1078
63
Chibuzo, N. S., Osinachi, U. F., James, M. T., Chigozie, O. F., Dereje, B., &
Irene, C. E. (2021). Technological advancements in the drying of
fruits and vegetables: A review. African Journal of Food Science,
15(12), 367–379. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJFS2021.2113
Dhande, A., Agarwal, M., & Agarwal, G. Das. (2024). Drying kinetics
(mathematical modeling) and quality evaluation of herbal leaves
(Adulsa and Durva) dried in small-scale greenhouse solar dryer
(GHSD): Experimental investigation and comparative analysis.
Journal of Food Process Engineering, 47(8).
https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.14704
Djebli, A., Hanini, S., Badaoui, O., Haddad, B., & Benhamou, A. (2020).
Modeling and comparative analysis of solar drying behavior of
potatoes. Renewable Energy, 145, 1494–1506.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.07.083
Doymaz, I. (2014). Drying kinetics and rehydration characteristics of
convective hot-air dried white button mushroom slices. Journal of
Chemistry, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/453175ng
Dufera, L. T., Hofacker, W., Esper, A., & Hensel, O. (2023). Effect of
packaging materials on lycopene vitamin C and water activity of
dried tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) powder during
storage. Food Science and Nutrition, May, 1–8.
https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.3562
García, J. M., Prieto, L. J., Guevara, A., Malagon, D., & Osorio, C. (2016).
Chemical studies of yellow tamarillo (Solanum betaceum Cav.)
fruit flavor by using a molecular sensory approach. Molecules,
21(12), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules21121729
Hadree, J., Shahidi, F., Mohebbi, M., & Abbaspour, M. (2023). Evaluation
of Effects of Spray Drying Conditions on Physicochemical
Properties of Pomegranate Juice Powder Enriched with
Pomegranate Peel Phenolic Compounds: Modeling and
Optimization by RSM. In Foods (Vol. 12, Issue 10).
https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12102066
Hssaini, L., Ouaabou, R., Charafi, J., Idlimam, A., Lamharrar, A., Razouk,
R., & Hanine, H. (2020). Hygroscopic proprieties of fig (Ficus
carica L.): Mathematical modelling of moisture sorption
isotherms and isosteric heat kinetics. South African Journal of
Botany, 000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2020.11.026
Inyang, U. E., Oboh, I. O., & Etuk, B. R. (2018). Kinetic Models for Drying
Techniques—Food Materials. Advances in Chemical Engineering
and Science, 08(02), 27–48.
https://doi.org/10.4236/aces.2018.82003
İzli, G., Yildiz, G., & Berk, S. E. (2022). Quality retention in pumpkin
powder dried by combined microwave-convective drying.
Journal of Food Science and Technology, 59(4), 1558–1569.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-021-05167-5
Jideani, A. I. O., & Anyasi, T. A., (Eds.). (2020). Banana Nutrition - Function
and Processing Kinetics. Intech Open.
Https://Doi.Org/10.5772/Intechopen.76736, 11(tourism), 13.
Kahraman, O., Malvandi, A., Vargas, L., & Feng, H. (2021). Drying
characteristics and quality attributes of apple slices dried by a nonthermal ultrasonic contact drying method. Ultrasonics
Sonochemistry, 73, 105510.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ULTSONCH.2021.105510
Kamiloglu, S., Toydemir, G., Boyacioglu, D., Beekwilder, J., Hall, R. D., &
Capanoglu, E. (2016). A Review on the Effect of Drying on
Antioxidant Potential of Fruits and Vegetables. Critical Reviews
in Food Science and Nutrition, 56, S110–S129.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2015.1045969
Lawless, H. T., & Heymann, H. (2010). Sensory evaluation of food:
principles of good practice. In Sensory Evaluation of Food.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6488-5
Liu, Y., Zhang, Z., & Hu, L. (2022). High efficient freeze-drying technology
in food industry. In Critical Reviews in Food Science and
Nutrition (Vol. 62, Issue 12, pp. 3370–3388). Taylor and Francis
Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2020.1865261
Loha, C., Das, R., & Choudhury, B. (2012). Evaluation of Air Drying
Characteristics of Sliced Ginger (Zingiber officinale) in a Forced
Convective Cabinet Dryer and Thermal Conductivity
Measurement. Journal of Food Processing & Technology, 03(06).
https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7110.1000160
Madani, N., & Sharifi, A. (2020). Beverage powder based on Shahani grape
pomace extract: Physicochemical properties of foam-mat freezedried and spray-dried powders.
https://doi.org/10.22059/JFABE.2024.375744.1172
Mahanti, N. K., Chakraborty, S. K., Sudhakar, A., Verma, D. K., Shankar, S.,
Thakur, M., Singh, S., Tripathy, S., Gupta, A. K., & Srivastav, P.
P. (2021). Refractance WindowTM-Drying vs. other drying
methods and effect of different process parameters on quality of
foods: A comprehensive review of trends and technological
developments. Future Foods, 3(March), 100024.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2021.100024
Maitha, I. M., Okoth, M. W., Njue, L. G., & Mbuge, D. O. (2025).
Characterization of the attributes impacting industrial adoption of
tree tomato fruit varieties in Kenya. Cogent Food and Agriculture,
11(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2025.2464226
Mewa, E. A., Okoth, M. W., Kunyanga, C. N., & Rugiri, M. N. (2019).
Experimental evaluation of beef drying kinetics in a solar tunnel
dryer. Renewable Energy, 139, 235–241.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.02.067
Muzaffar, K., & Kumar, P. (2016). Comparative efficiency of maltodextrin
and protein in the production of spray-dried tamarind pulp
powder. Drying Technology, 34(7), 802–809.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2015.1080724
Nadian, M. H., Abbaspour-Fard, M. H., Martynenko, A., & Golzarian, M. R.
(2017). An intelligent integrated control of hybrid hot air-infrared
dryer based on fuzzy logic and computer vision system.
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 137, 138–149.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2017.04.001
Nath Prerna, Pandey, N. and S. M. and S. K. and K. S. and K. P. and S. S.
and C. O. P. (2022). Browning Reactions in Foods. In O. P.
Chauhan (Ed.), Advances in Food Chemistry: Food Components,
Processing and Preservation (pp. 117–159). Springer Nature
Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4796-4_4
Nedamani, A. R., & Hashemi, S. J. (2020). RSM-CFD modeling for
optimizing the apricot water evaporation.
https://doi.org/10.22059/jfabe.2021.320809.1088
Nwakuba, N., Ezeanya, N., Horsfall, I. T., Okafor, V., Ononogbo, C.,
Ndukwu, M., Simo-Tagne, M., & Asoegwu, S. (2025). Heat and
moisture transport in okra cylinders with shrinkage effects under
solar drying: a multiphysics-based simulation approach (pp 117–
159) Sustainable Food Technology.
https://doi.org/10.1039/d4fb00343h
Ong, X. Y., Taylor, S. E., & Ramaioli, M. (2020). Rehydration of food
powders: Interplay between physical properties and process
conditions. Powder Technology, 371, 142–153.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.POWTEC.2020.05.066
Ordóñez-Santos, L. E., & Martínez-Girón, J. (2020). Thermal degradation
kinetics of carotenoids, vitamin C and provitamin A in tree tomato
juice. International Journal of Food Science and Technology,
55(1), 201–210. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.14263
Raghavi, L. M., Moses, J. A., & Anandharamakrishnan, C. (2018).
Refractance window drying of foods: A review. Journal of Food
Engineering, 222, 267–275.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2017.11.032
Rajoriya, D., Bhavya, M. L., & Hebbar, H. U. (2021). Impact of process
parameters on drying behaviour, mass transfer and quality profile
of refractance window dried banana puree. Lwt, 145(November
2020), 111330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111330
Schmidt, S. J. (2020). Water Mobility in Foods. Water Activity in Foods,
1957, 61–122. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118765982.ch5
Senanayake, S., Gunaratne, A., Ranaweera, K., & Bamunuarachchi, A.
(2013). Effect of Heat Moisture Treatment Conditions on
Swelling Power and Water-Soluble Index of Different Cultivars
of Sweet Potato (Ipomea batatas (L). Lam) Starch. ISRN
Agronomy, 2013, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/502457
Sharifi, A., Niakousari, M., & Rigi, S. (2020). Experimental study and
mathematical modeling of thin layer drying of rhubarb (Rheum
ribes L.). https://doi.org/10.22059/jfabe.2020.75287
Maitha et al. JFBE 8(1): 33-44,2025
44
Snoussi, A., Essaidi, I., Ben, H., Koubaier, H., Zrelli, H., Alsafari, I.,
Živoslav, T., Mihailovic, J., Khan, M., & Omri, A. El. (2021).
Drying methodology effect on the phenolic content, antioxidant
activity of Myrtus communis L. leaves ethanol extracts and
soybean oil oxidative stability. BMC Chemistry, 1–11.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13065-021-00753-2
Tapia, M. S., Alzamora, S. M., & Chirife, J. (2020). Effects of water activity
(aw) on microbial stability as a hurdle in food preservation. Water
Activity in Foods: Fundamentals and Applications, 323–355.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118765982.ch14
Van ’T Hag, L., Danthe, J., Handschin, S., Mutuli, G. P., Mbuge, D., &
Mezzenga, R. (2020). Drying of African leafy vegetables for their
effective preservation: The difference in moisture sorption
isotherms explained by their microstructure. Food and Function,
11(1), 955–964. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9fo01175g
Verma, T., Wei, X., Lau, S. K., Bianchini, A., Eskridge, K. M., & Subbiah,
J. (2018). Evaluation of Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 as
a Surrogate for Salmonella During Extrusion of Low-Moisture
Food. Journal of Food Science, 83(4), 1063–1072.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.14110
Vu, N. D., Nguyen, V. M., & Tran, T. T. (2023). Effects of pH, Total Soluble
Solids, and Pectin Concentration on Color, Texture, Vitamin C,
and Sensory Quality of Mango Fruit Bar. International Journal of
Food Science, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/6618300
Xu, J., Wang, P., Bai, Z., Cheng, H., Wang, R., Qu, L., & Li, T. (2024).
Sustainable moisture energy. Nature Reviews Materials, 9(10),
722–737. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-023-00643-0
Akther, S., Sultana, J., Badsha, R., Rahman, M., Buddha, G., & Alim, A.
(2023). Drying methods effect on bioactive compounds, phenolic
profile, and antioxidant capacity of mango powder. Journal of
King Saud University - Science, 35(1), 102370.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2022.102370
AOAC. (2010). Official Methods of Analysis: 18th Edition,2005. In TrAC
Trends in Analytical Chemistry (Vol. 9, Issue 4).
https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-9936(90)87098-7
Aravindakshan, S., Nguyen, T. H. A., Kyomugasho, C., Buvé, C.,
Dewettinck, K., Van Loey, A., & Hendrickx, M. E. (2021). The
impact of drying and rehydration on the structural properties and
quality attributes of pre-cooked dried beans. Foods, 10(7).
https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10071665
Azeez, L., Adebisi, S. A., Oyedeji, A. O., Adetoro, R. O., & Tijani, K. O.
(2019). Bioactive compounds’ contents, drying kinetics and
mathematical modelling of tomato slices influenced by drying
temperatures and time. In Journal of the Saudi Society of
Agricultural Sciences (Vol. 18, Issue 2, pp. 120–126). King Saud
University & Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2017.03.002
Bhagya Raj, G. V. S., & Dash, K. K. (2022). Comprehensive study on
applications of artificial neural network in food process modeling.
In Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition (Vol. 62, Issue
10, pp. 2756–2783). Taylor and Francis Ltd.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2020.1858398
Bhattacharjee, S., Mohanty, P., Sahu, J. K., & Sahu, J. N. (2024). A critical
review on drying of food materials: Recent progress and key
challenges. International Communications in Heat and Mass
Transfer, 158, 107863.
Maitha et al. JFBE 8(1): 33-44,2025
43
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ICHEATMASSTRANSFER.2024.1078
63
Chibuzo, N. S., Osinachi, U. F., James, M. T., Chigozie, O. F., Dereje, B., &
Irene, C. E. (2021). Technological advancements in the drying of
fruits and vegetables: A review. African Journal of Food Science,
15(12), 367–379. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJFS2021.2113
Dhande, A., Agarwal, M., & Agarwal, G. Das. (2024). Drying kinetics
(mathematical modeling) and quality evaluation of herbal leaves
(Adulsa and Durva) dried in small-scale greenhouse solar dryer
(GHSD): Experimental investigation and comparative analysis.
Journal of Food Process Engineering, 47(8).
https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.14704
Djebli, A., Hanini, S., Badaoui, O., Haddad, B., & Benhamou, A. (2020).
Modeling and comparative analysis of solar drying behavior of
potatoes. Renewable Energy, 145, 1494–1506.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.07.083
Doymaz, I. (2014). Drying kinetics and rehydration characteristics of
convective hot-air dried white button mushroom slices. Journal of
Chemistry, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/453175ng
Dufera, L. T., Hofacker, W., Esper, A., & Hensel, O. (2023). Effect of
packaging materials on lycopene vitamin C and water activity of
dried tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) powder during
storage. Food Science and Nutrition, May, 1–8.
https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.3562
García, J. M., Prieto, L. J., Guevara, A., Malagon, D., & Osorio, C. (2016).
Chemical studies of yellow tamarillo (Solanum betaceum Cav.)
fruit flavor by using a molecular sensory approach. Molecules,
21(12), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules21121729
Hadree, J., Shahidi, F., Mohebbi, M., & Abbaspour, M. (2023). Evaluation
of Effects of Spray Drying Conditions on Physicochemical
Properties of Pomegranate Juice Powder Enriched with
Pomegranate Peel Phenolic Compounds: Modeling and
Optimization by RSM. In Foods (Vol. 12, Issue 10).
https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12102066
Hssaini, L., Ouaabou, R., Charafi, J., Idlimam, A., Lamharrar, A., Razouk,
R., & Hanine, H. (2020). Hygroscopic proprieties of fig (Ficus
carica L.): Mathematical modelling of moisture sorption
isotherms and isosteric heat kinetics. South African Journal of
Botany, 000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2020.11.026
Inyang, U. E., Oboh, I. O., & Etuk, B. R. (2018). Kinetic Models for Drying
Techniques—Food Materials. Advances in Chemical Engineering
and Science, 08(02), 27–48.
https://doi.org/10.4236/aces.2018.82003
İzli, G., Yildiz, G., & Berk, S. E. (2022). Quality retention in pumpkin
powder dried by combined microwave-convective drying.
Journal of Food Science and Technology, 59(4), 1558–1569.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-021-05167-5
Jideani, A. I. O., & Anyasi, T. A., (Eds.). (2020). Banana Nutrition - Function
and Processing Kinetics. Intech Open.
Https://Doi.Org/10.5772/Intechopen.76736, 11(tourism), 13.
Kahraman, O., Malvandi, A., Vargas, L., & Feng, H. (2021). Drying
characteristics and quality attributes of apple slices dried by a nonthermal ultrasonic contact drying method. Ultrasonics
Sonochemistry, 73, 105510.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ULTSONCH.2021.105510
Kamiloglu, S., Toydemir, G., Boyacioglu, D., Beekwilder, J., Hall, R. D., &
Capanoglu, E. (2016). A Review on the Effect of Drying on
Antioxidant Potential of Fruits and Vegetables. Critical Reviews
in Food Science and Nutrition, 56, S110–S129.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2015.1045969
Lawless, H. T., & Heymann, H. (2010). Sensory evaluation of food:
principles of good practice. In Sensory Evaluation of Food.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6488-5
Liu, Y., Zhang, Z., & Hu, L. (2022). High efficient freeze-drying technology
in food industry. In Critical Reviews in Food Science and
Nutrition (Vol. 62, Issue 12, pp. 3370–3388). Taylor and Francis
Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2020.1865261
Loha, C., Das, R., & Choudhury, B. (2012). Evaluation of Air Drying
Characteristics of Sliced Ginger (Zingiber officinale) in a Forced
Convective Cabinet Dryer and Thermal Conductivity
Measurement. Journal of Food Processing & Technology, 03(06).
https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7110.1000160
Madani, N., & Sharifi, A. (2020). Beverage powder based on Shahani grape
pomace extract: Physicochemical properties of foam-mat freezedried and spray-dried powders.
https://doi.org/10.22059/JFABE.2024.375744.1172
Mahanti, N. K., Chakraborty, S. K., Sudhakar, A., Verma, D. K., Shankar, S.,
Thakur, M., Singh, S., Tripathy, S., Gupta, A. K., & Srivastav, P.
P. (2021). Refractance WindowTM-Drying vs. other drying
methods and effect of different process parameters on quality of
foods: A comprehensive review of trends and technological
developments. Future Foods, 3(March), 100024.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2021.100024
Maitha, I. M., Okoth, M. W., Njue, L. G., & Mbuge, D. O. (2025).
Characterization of the attributes impacting industrial adoption of
tree tomato fruit varieties in Kenya. Cogent Food and Agriculture,
11(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2025.2464226
Mewa, E. A., Okoth, M. W., Kunyanga, C. N., & Rugiri, M. N. (2019).
Experimental evaluation of beef drying kinetics in a solar tunnel
dryer. Renewable Energy, 139, 235–241.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.02.067
Muzaffar, K., & Kumar, P. (2016). Comparative efficiency of maltodextrin
and protein in the production of spray-dried tamarind pulp
powder. Drying Technology, 34(7), 802–809.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2015.1080724
Nadian, M. H., Abbaspour-Fard, M. H., Martynenko, A., & Golzarian, M. R.
(2017). An intelligent integrated control of hybrid hot air-infrared
dryer based on fuzzy logic and computer vision system.
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 137, 138–149.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2017.04.001
Nath Prerna, Pandey, N. and S. M. and S. K. and K. S. and K. P. and S. S.
and C. O. P. (2022). Browning Reactions in Foods. In O. P.
Chauhan (Ed.), Advances in Food Chemistry: Food Components,
Processing and Preservation (pp. 117–159). Springer Nature
Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4796-4_4
Nedamani, A. R., & Hashemi, S. J. (2020). RSM-CFD modeling for
optimizing the apricot water evaporation.
https://doi.org/10.22059/jfabe.2021.320809.1088
Nwakuba, N., Ezeanya, N., Horsfall, I. T., Okafor, V., Ononogbo, C.,
Ndukwu, M., Simo-Tagne, M., & Asoegwu, S. (2025). Heat and
moisture transport in okra cylinders with shrinkage effects under
solar drying: a multiphysics-based simulation approach (pp 117–
159) Sustainable Food Technology.
https://doi.org/10.1039/d4fb00343h
Ong, X. Y., Taylor, S. E., & Ramaioli, M. (2020). Rehydration of food
powders: Interplay between physical properties and process
conditions. Powder Technology, 371, 142–153.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.POWTEC.2020.05.066
Ordóñez-Santos, L. E., & Martínez-Girón, J. (2020). Thermal degradation
kinetics of carotenoids, vitamin C and provitamin A in tree tomato
juice. International Journal of Food Science and Technology,
55(1), 201–210. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.14263
Raghavi, L. M., Moses, J. A., & Anandharamakrishnan, C. (2018).
Refractance window drying of foods: A review. Journal of Food
Engineering, 222, 267–275.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2017.11.032
Rajoriya, D., Bhavya, M. L., & Hebbar, H. U. (2021). Impact of process
parameters on drying behaviour, mass transfer and quality profile
of refractance window dried banana puree. Lwt, 145(November
2020), 111330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111330
Schmidt, S. J. (2020). Water Mobility in Foods. Water Activity in Foods,
1957, 61–122. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118765982.ch5
Senanayake, S., Gunaratne, A., Ranaweera, K., & Bamunuarachchi, A.
(2013). Effect of Heat Moisture Treatment Conditions on
Swelling Power and Water-Soluble Index of Different Cultivars
of Sweet Potato (Ipomea batatas (L). Lam) Starch. ISRN
Agronomy, 2013, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/502457
Sharifi, A., Niakousari, M., & Rigi, S. (2020). Experimental study and
mathematical modeling of thin layer drying of rhubarb (Rheum
ribes L.). https://doi.org/10.22059/jfabe.2020.75287
Maitha et al. JFBE 8(1): 33-44,2025
44
Snoussi, A., Essaidi, I., Ben, H., Koubaier, H., Zrelli, H., Alsafari, I.,
Živoslav, T., Mihailovic, J., Khan, M., & Omri, A. El. (2021).
Drying methodology effect on the phenolic content, antioxidant
activity of Myrtus communis L. leaves ethanol extracts and
soybean oil oxidative stability. BMC Chemistry, 1–11.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13065-021-00753-2
Tapia, M. S., Alzamora, S. M., & Chirife, J. (2020). Effects of water activity
(aw) on microbial stability as a hurdle in food preservation. Water
Activity in Foods: Fundamentals and Applications, 323–355.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118765982.ch14
Van ’T Hag, L., Danthe, J., Handschin, S., Mutuli, G. P., Mbuge, D., &
Mezzenga, R. (2020). Drying of African leafy vegetables for their
effective preservation: The difference in moisture sorption
isotherms explained by their microstructure. Food and Function,
11(1), 955–964. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9fo01175g
Verma, T., Wei, X., Lau, S. K., Bianchini, A., Eskridge, K. M., & Subbiah,
J. (2018). Evaluation of Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 as
a Surrogate for Salmonella During Extrusion of Low-Moisture
Food. Journal of Food Science, 83(4), 1063–1072.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.14110
Vu, N. D., Nguyen, V. M., & Tran, T. T. (2023). Effects of pH, Total Soluble
Solids, and Pectin Concentration on Color, Texture, Vitamin C,
and Sensory Quality of Mango Fruit Bar. International Journal of
Food Science, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/6618300
Xu, J., Wang, P., Bai, Z., Cheng, H., Wang, R., Qu, L., & Li, T. (2024).
Sustainable moisture energy. Nature Reviews Materials, 9(10),
722–737. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-023-00643-0
)